Epicureanism is a philosophical system based on the teachings of the ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus, founded around 307 BC. Epicurus is an atomic materialist, following the steps of Democritus. His materialism led him to a general attack on superstition and divine intervention. Following Aristippus - about whom very little is known - Epicurus believes that what he calls "pleasure" (?????) is the greatest good, but that the way to achieve such pleasure is simple life, to gain knowledge of the workings of the world, and to limit one's desire. This will cause a person to reach a state of tranquility ( ataraxia ) and freedom from fear and the absence of physical pain ( aponia ). The combination of these two countries forms happiness in its highest form. Although Epicureanism is a form of hedonism to the extent that it expresses pleasure as its sole intrinsic purpose, the concept that the absence of pain and fear is the greatest pleasure, and its defense of simple life makes it very different from "hedonism" as everyday language understood.
Epicureanism was at first a challenge to Platonism, although later it became a major opponent of Stoicism. Epicurus and his followers avoided politics. After the death of Epicurus, his school was led by Hermarchus; then many Epicurean societies developed in the Hellenistic era of the End and during the Roman era (as in Antiochia, Alexandria, Rhodes, and Ercolano). The most famous Roman supporter is the poet Lucretius. At the end of the Roman Empire, opposed by philosophy (especially Neo-Platonism) now in the influential Epicenisan, has died, and will be resurrected in the Age of Enlightenment.
Some writings by Epicurus survived. Some scholars consider the epic poem In the Real Things of Everything by Lucretius to present in a unified work, the core argument and the theory of Epicureanism. Many of the scrolls dug in Villa Papirus in Herculaneum are Epicurean texts. At least there are some that are considered to belong to Epicurean Filanik. Today, there is a large Epicurean community in Greece, an Epicurus Friend Association in the West, and Schools have a growing online presence. In the French-speaking world, Michel Onfray is considered Neo-Epicurean.
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Histori
In Mytilene, the capital of the island of Lesbos, and later in Lampsacus Epicurus teach and gain followers. In Athens Epicurus bought a property for his school named "Garden", then the name of Epicurus school. Its members include Hermarchus, Idomeneus, Colotes, Polyaenus, and Metrodorus. Epicurus emphasizes friendship as an important element of happiness, and the school seems to have become a moderate ascetic community that rejects the political focus of Athens's philosophy. They are quite cosmopolitan by Athens standards, including women and slaves. Some members are also vegetarian because, from the slender evidence, Epicurus does not eat meat, although no ban on eating meat is made.
The popularity of the school grew and became, along with Stoicism, Platonism, Peripateticism, and Pyrrhonism, one of the dominant schools of Hellenistic philosophy, which lasted strongly through the later Roman Empire. Another major source of information is the Roman politician and philosopher Cicero, though he is very critical, denounces the Epicureans as an uncontrolled hedonist, devoid of virtue and duty, and guilty of withdrawing from public life. Another ancient source is Diogenes of Oenoanda, who composed a large inscription at Oenoanda in Lycia.
The carbonization rolls obtained from the library at Villa of the Papyri in Herculaneum contain a large number of works by Philodemus, a Hellenistic Epithet, and Epicurus himself, which proves the long-lasting popularity of schools. Diogenes reports defamatory stories circulated by Epicurus's opponents. With the growing dominance of Neoplatonism and Peripateticism, and later, Christianity, Epicureanism declined. At the end of the third century AD, there is little trace of its existence. The earliest Christian writer, Lactantius, criticized Epicurus at some point along the Divine Institutes. In Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy , Epicureans is described as a heretic suffering in the sixth circle of hell. In fact, Epicurus seems to represent the last heresy. The word for heresy in Talmudic literature is "Apiqoros" ( ???????? ?).
In the seventeenth century, Franciscan priests of France, scientist and philosopher Pierre Gassendi wrote two books that forcibly evoked Epicureanism. Shortly thereafter, and clearly influenced by Gassendi, Walter Charleton published several works on Epicureanism in English. The attacks by Christians continued, most strongly by the Cambridge Platonists.
At the beginning of the modern period, scientists adopted atomist theory, while materialist philosophers embraced the Epicurus hedonic ethic and restated its objection to natural teleology.
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Religion
Epicureanism does not deny the existence of the gods, but denies their involvement in the world. According to Epicureanism, the gods do not interfere with human life or the entire universe in any way. The manner in which Epicurean gods exist is still disputed. Some scholars say that Epicureanism believes that gods exist outside the mind as material objects (realist positions), while others claim that gods exist only in our minds as ideals (idealist position). The realist position states that Epicurean understands the gods as there are physical and immortal beings made of atoms located somewhere in reality. However, the gods were completely separated from the rest of reality; they are not interested in him, do not play any role in it, and remain completely undisturbed by it. Instead, the gods live in what is called metacosmia, or inter-world space. In contrast, the idealist position states that Epicurus does not really understand the gods as being in reality. Instead, Epicurus is said to have seen the gods as the ideal forms of the best human life, and it is thought that the gods are symbols of life to be dreamed of. The debates between these two positions are revived by A. A. Long and David Sedley in their 1987 book, The Hellenistic Philosophers , in which both argue in favor of the idealist position. While an academic consensus has not been reached, the realist position remains a prevailing view today.
Epicureanism also offers arguments against the existence of deities in the way proposed by other belief systems. The Riddle of Epicurus , or Problem of evil , is a well-known argument against God's existence or an all-powerful and providential deity. As noted by Lactantius:
God also wants to eliminate bad things and can not, or can but do not want, or do not want or can not, or both want and can. If he wants and can not, then he is weak - and this does not apply to god. If he can but will not, then he is spiteful - which is as foreign to the nature of god. If he does not want or can not, he is weak and vengeful, and not a god. If he wants and can, which is the only fit for the god, where did the bad things come from? Or why did not he get rid of it?
This type of trilemma argument (God is omnipotent, God is good, but Crime exists) is one favored by ancient Greek skeptics, and this argument may have been wrongly attributed to Epicurus by Lactantius, who, from a perspective Christians, regard Epicurus as an atheist. According to Reinhold F. Glei, it is certain that the theodicy argument comes from an academic source that is not only not Epicurean, but even anti-Epicurean. The earliest surviving versions of trilemma appear in the writings of the Pyrrhony philosopher Sextus Empiricus.
Parallels can be drawn to Jainism and Buddhism, which equally emphasizes the lack of divine intervention and its atomic aspect. Epicureanism also resembles Buddhism in its greed, including the belief that great excess causes great dissatisfaction.
Philosophy
Epicureanism holds that pleasure is the main good in life. Therefore, Epicurus advocates life in such a way as to gain as much pleasure as possible during one's lifetime, but does so moderately to avoid suffering caused by too much pleasure. Emphasis is placed on the pleasures of mind rather than physical pleasure. Unnecessary and foremost desire, specially produced desires must be suppressed. Because political life can create a desire that can interfere with one's virtue and peace of mind, such as lust for power or a desire for prominence, participation in politics is not recommended. Furthermore, Epicurus seeks to dispel the fears of the gods and deaths, seeing the two fears as the main cause of disagreements in life. Active epicurus are advised to fight passionate love, and believe that it is best to avoid marriage altogether. He views recreational sex as a natural desire, but it does not need to be avoided in general.
Epicurean's understanding of justice is inherently selfish. Justice is considered good because it is considered mutually beneficial. Individuals will not act unfairly even if the act was initially unknown because of the possibility of being caught and punished. Both punishment and fear of punishment will cause a person's disturbance and prevent them from becoming happy.
Epicurus strongly emphasizes the development of friendship as the basis of a satisfying life.
of all the contrived wisdom that contributes to a blessed life, nothing is more important, more fruitful than friendship
While the pursuit of pleasure forms the focal point of philosophy, it is largely directed at "static fun" to minimize pain, anxiety, and suffering. In fact, Epicurus calls life a "bitter gift".
As we say... that pleasure is the end and purpose, we do not mean the pleasure of the lost or the pleasure of sensuality, as we are understood by some through ignorance, prejudice or deliberate misunderstanding. With our pleasure means the absence of bodily pain and mental problems. Not by a succession of liquor and debauchery, not by sexual desire, or the enjoyment of fish and other delicacies from the fancy table, which produces a pleasant life; it is a plausible reason, looking for reasons for every choice and avoidance, and discarding the beliefs through which the greatest commotion prevails over the soul.
Epicureanism rejects immortality. It believes in the soul, but shows that the soul is mortal and material, just like the body. Epicurus rejects any possibility of life after death, while maintaining that one should not fear death: "Death means nothing to us, for that which is dissolved, without sensation, and which has no sensation is meaningless to us." From this doctrine appears Epicurean Epitaph: Non fui, fui, non sum, non curo ("I am not; I am; I do not; I do not care"), written on the tombstone of his followers and seen in many ancient Roman imperial tombstones. This quote is often used today in humanist funerals.
Ethics
Epicureanism based its ethics on the set of hedonic values. In the most basic sense, Epikurans sees pleasure as the purpose of life. As evidence for this, Epicurean says that nature seems to command us to avoid pain, and they show that all animals try to avoid as much pain as possible. Epicurists have a very specific understanding of what the greatest fun is, and the focus of their ethics is on pain avoidance rather than seeking pleasure.
Epicureanism divides pleasure into two broad categories: body pleasure and pleasure of mind .
- Body Pleasure : This enjoyment involves bodily sensations, such as the act of eating delicious food or being in a pain-free state, and there are only presents. One can only experience the pleasure of the body at that moment, which means they only exist when one experiences it.
- Pleasure of mind : This enjoyment involves mental processes and states; feelings of excitement, lack of fear, and pleasant memories are examples of the pleasures of the mind. This enjoyment of mind is not only present in the past, but also in the past and the future, as the memory of a pleasant past experience or the hope of a potentially enjoyable future can be a pleasant experience. Because of this, the pleasure of the mind is considered greater than the body.
The Epicureans further divide each of these types of pleasures into two categories: kinetic pleasure and katastematic pleasure .
- Kinetic Delight : Kinetic pleasure represents physical or mental pleasure that involves action or change. Eating delicious food, as well as fulfilling the desire and relieving the pain, which itself is considered a pleasant act, are all examples of kinetic pleasure in a physical sense. According to Epicurus, the feeling of excitement will be an example of mental kinetic pleasure.
- Katastematic Pleasure : Katastematic fun describes the pleasures that a person feels when in a state of pain. Like kinetic pleasure, katastematic pleasure can also be physical, like a state of no thirst, or mental, like freedom from a state of fear. The complete physical pleasure of catastasis is called aponia , and the complete catasthematic mental pleasure is called ataraxia .
From this understanding, Epicurean concludes that the greatest pleasure one can attain is the complete elimination of all pain, both physical and mental. The main purpose of Epicurean ethics is to achieve the state of aponia and ataraxia . To do this, Epicurean must control their desires, because the desire itself is considered painful. Not only will it control a person's desire to bring aponia , because someone will rarely suffer from being physically dissatisfied, but controlling one's desire will also help to bring ataraxia because one will not be worried about being uncomfortable because people will have so little desire anyway.
Epicurus distinguishes three types of desires: natural and unnecessary , natural but unnecessary , and unnatural or necessary .
- Natural and necessary : These desires are limited desires that are innately present to all humans; it is part of human nature to have it. They are needed for one of three reasons: necessary for happiness, necessary for freedom from physical discomfort, and necessary for life. Clothing will belong to the first two categories, while something like food will belong to all three.
- Natural but unnecessary : This desire is innate, but they need not be fulfilled for our happiness or survival. Want to eat delicious food when a person is hungry will be an example of a natural desire but not necessary. The main problem with this desire is that they fail to substantially increase one's happiness, and at the same time require effort to get and be wanted by people because of the false belief that they are actually needed. For this reason they should be avoided.
- Unnatural or unnecessary : These wishes are naturally human or necessary for happiness or health; indeed, they are also unlimited and can never be fulfilled. The desire for wealth or fame will fall into this category, and that desire should be avoided because it will ultimately only cause discomfort.
If a person only follows the natural and required desires, then, according to Epicurus, one will be able to attain aponia and ataraxia and thus the highest form of happiness.
Epicurus was also an early thinker to develop the idea of ​​justice as a social contract. He defines justice as an agreement made by people not to hurt each other. The point of life in society with law and punishment must be protected from harm so that people are free to pursue happiness. Therefore, laws that do not contribute to promoting human happiness are unjust. He gave his own unique version of Reciprocal Ethics, which differs from other formulations by emphasizing minimizing harm and maximizing happiness for oneself and others:
"It is impossible to live a pleasant life without living wisely and healthy and just, and it is impossible to live wisely and well and justly without living a pleasant life."
Epicureanism incorporated a relatively complete report of social contract theory, and partly attempted to address the problems with the communities described in
Epicurean Physics
Epicurean physics states that the entire universe consists of two things: matter and emptiness. The material consists of atoms, which are small bodies that have only unchanged shapes, size, and weight qualities. Atoms are felt unchanged because Epicurean believes that the world is commanded and change must have a specific and consistent source, for example one plant species only grows from the seed of the same species.
Epicurus argues that there must be an infinite supply of atoms, though only a limited number of atoms, as well as an infinite number of empty. Epicurus explains this position in his letter to Herodotus:
"Moreover, the number of things is not limited either because of the number of atoms and vacancy levels, for if the void is infinite and the body is limited, the bodies will not stay anywhere but will be scattered in their journey through the uninhabited void limited, have no support or countercheck to send them back on top of their rebound.Once if the void is limited, the infinity of the body will not be anywhere. "
Because of the infinite supply of atoms, there is an infinite number of worlds, or cosmoi . Some of these worlds can be very different from our world, some are very similar, and all the worlds are separated from one another by vast empty areas ( metachosmia ).
Epicureism states that atoms can not be broken down into smaller parts, and Epikuri offers several arguments to support this position. The Epicologist holds that because emptiness is necessary for moving matter, anything that is made up of emptiness and matter can be broken, whereas if something does not contain a void there is no way to break apart because no part of the substance can be broken down into smaller subdivisions of substance. They also argue that in order for the universe to survive, what is ultimately formed can not be changed or the universe will be fundamentally destroyed.
Atom continues to move in one of four different ways. Atoms can collide with each other and then bounce off to each other. When joining with each other and forming larger objects, the atoms can vibrate as they become one another while retaining the overall shape of the larger object. When not prevented by other atoms, all atoms move at the same rate naturally downward in relation to the resting world. This downward movement is natural for atoms; however, as a means of their fourth motion, atoms can alternately randomly exit from the usual lower path they do. This rotating movement is what makes it possible for the creation of the universe, because the more atoms that bend and collide with each other, things can form when the atoms join together. Without turning, the atoms will never interact with each other, and just keep moving down at the same speed.
Epicurus also feels that turning is what counts for human free will. If it were not for the turning, man would be subject to a never ending chain of cause and effect. This is the point often used by the Epicuri to criticize the atomic theory of Democritus.
Epicurean believes that the senses also depend on the atom. Each object continuously emits particles of itself which then interact with the observer. All sensations, such as sight, smell, or sound, depend on these particles. While the emitted atoms do not have the perceived quality of the senses, the way they radiate causes the observer to experience such sensations, for example the red particles themselves are not red but are emitted in a way that causes the audience to experience a red color. Atoms are not perceived individually, but rather as a continuous sensation because of how fast they move.
Epistemology
The Epicurean philosophy employs empirical epistemology. The Epicureans believe that all sense perceptions are true, and those errors appear in the way we perceive those perceptions. When we form an assessment of things ( hupolepsis ), they can be verified and corrected through further sensory information. For example, if one looks at a tower from a distant that seems round, and when approaching the tower they see that it is really square, they will realize that their initial judgment is wrong and correct their wrong opinion.
Epicurus is said to have proposed three truth criteria: sensations (aisthÃÆ'ªsis ), preconceptions ( prolepsis ), and feelings ( pathÃÆ'ª ). The fourth criterion is called "mind presentation application" ( phantastikai epibolai tÃÆ'ªs dianoias ) said to have been added by Epicureans then. These criteria form the method by which Epicureans thinks we gain knowledge.
Since Epicureans think that sensation can not deceive, sensation is the first and foremost criterion of truth for Epicurean. Even in cases where the sensory input seems to be misleading, the input itself is true and the error arises from our assessment of the input. For example, when someone puts a straight oar in the water, he appears bent. The Epicurean would argue that the image of the oars, the atoms moving from the oars to the observer's eye, has shifted and thus actually arrives in the observer's eye in the form of a bent oar. The observer makes the mistake of assuming that the image he received correctly represents the oars and is not distorted in some way. In order not to make false judgments about things that can be understood rather than to verify one's judgment, Epicurean believes that one needs to get a "clear vision" ( enargeia ) from what can be seen with closer examination. It acts as a justification for one's judgment of perceived matters. Enargeia is characterized as the sensation of an object that does not change by judgment or opinion and is a clear and direct perception of the object.
One's preconception is its concept of what things are, for example one's idea of ​​a horse is, and these concepts are formed in one's mind through sensory input over time. When words related to preconceptions are used, these preconceptions are called by the mind into one's mind. It is through our preconception that we are able to make judgments about the things we feel. Preconception is also used by Epicureans to avoid the paradoxes Plato puts in Meno about learning. Plato argues that learning requires that we have knowledge of what we learn, or else we will not be able to recognize when we have learned the information. Preconception, Epikurius argues, providing the individual with the initial knowledge necessary for learning.
Our feelings or emotions ( pathÃÆ'ª ) are how we feel pleasure and pain. They are analogous to sensations because they are a means of perception, but they see our internal state as opposed to external things. According to Diogenes Laertius, feeling is how we determine our actions. If something is fun, we pursue it, and if something hurts, we avoid it.
The idea of ​​"mind presentation application" is an explanation of how we can discuss and ask things we can not see directly. We receive impressions of those things directly in our minds, instead of seeing them through other senses. The concept of "mind presentation application" may have been introduced to explain how we learn about things we can not see directly, like the gods.
Tetrapharmakos
Tetrapharmakos, or "Four-part Medication", is Epicurus's basic guideline on how to live the happiest life. This poetic doctrine is inherited by an anonymous Epicurean who deduces the Epicurus philosophy of happiness in four simple lines:
Do not be afraid of god,
Do not worry about death;
What a good one is easy to get, and
What is horrible is easy to endure.
Important Epicureon
One of the early Roman writers who embraced Epicureanism was Amaphinius. Other followers of Epicurus's teachings include the poet Horace, whose famous statement Carpe Diem ("Seize the Day") illustrates philosophy, and Lucretius, who wrote poetry on philosophical principles. The Virgil poet is another prominent Epicurean (see Lucretius for more details). The Epicurean philosopher Philodemus of Gadara, until the 18th century only known as a less important poet, rose to prominence because most of his work along with other Epicurean materials was found in Villa of the Papyri. Later, in the second century AD, the comedian Lucian of Samosata and the rich philosophy promoter Diogenes of Oenoanda were the leading Epicans.
Julius Caesar was inclined towards Epicureanism, which for example caused his defense against the death sentence during the trial against Catiline, during the Catiline conspiracy where he spoke against Stoic Cato.
In modern times Thomas Jefferson calls himself Epicurean:
If I have time, I will add to my booklet the Greek, Latin and French texts, in a side-by-side column. And I wish I could subdue Gassendi Syntagma's translation of the Epicurus doctrine, which, apart from the busyness of the Stoics and the caricatures of Cicero, is the most rational system left of the philosophy of the ancients, for the saving of the devil's forgiveness, and the fruit of goodness as a rival devil's hyperbolic waste.
Epikarat modern lainnya adalah Gassendi, Walter Charleton, Franois Bernier, Saint-Evremond, Ninon de l'Enclos, Denis Diderot, Frances Wright, Jeremy Bentham dan.
Christopher Hitchens calls himself Epicurean. In France, where the perfume/restaurant owner Gerald Ghislain calls himself Epicurean, Michel Onfray is developing a post-modern approach to Epicureanism. In his latest book titled The Swerve , Stephen Greenblatt identifies himself very sympathetic to Epicureanism and Lucretius. Humanistic Judaism as a denomination also claims the Epicurean label.
Modern usage and misunderstanding
In modern popular usage, a liquor enthusiast is an expert in the art of life and the perfection of sensual pleasures; epicureanism implies the enjoyment of love or knowledge especially good food and beverages - see the gourmet definition in Wiktionary.
Because Epicureanism holds that pleasure is the best (telos), it has often been misunderstood since ancient times as a doctrine advocating taking part in instant pleasures such as persistent feasts, sexual excesses and decadent food. This is not the case. Epicurus considers ataraxia (calm, free from fear) and aponia (no pain) as the peak of happiness. He also considers prudence as an important virtue and is considered excessive and too much to contradict the attainment of ataraxia and aponia.
Instead, Epicurus prefers the "good", and "even wisdom and culture" to "stomach pleasure". While some 20th-century comments seek to reduce this and related quote, consistency with the Epicurean philosophy as a whole has been recently described.
When Epicurus seeks moderation while eating, he also does not reject moderation, ie, occasionally fancy. His community is also known for his celebration on the twentieth (Greek month).
See also
- Charvaka, Indian hedonic school
- Dehellenization
- Epicurea
- Epicurean paradox
- Epiclores
- Heddonist treadmill
- List of English translations of De rerum natura
- The philosophy of happiness
- Separation of church and country
- Zeno from Sidon
Note
Further reading
External links
- Society of Friends of Epicurus
- Epicure on PhilPapers
- Epicurus.info - Epicurean Online Philosophy
- Epicurus.net - Epicureans and Epicurean Philosophy
- Karl Marx's Notebook on Epicurean Philosophy
- Marx Doctor's Dissertation on the Difference between Democritean and Epicurean's Philosophy of Nature
- NewEpicurean.com
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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